Chapter 4 MARIE: An Introduction to a Simple Computer 2 4.8 MARIE - - PowerPoint PPT Presentation

Chapter 4

MARIE: An Introduction to a Simple Computer

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4.8 MARIE

This is the MARIE architecture shown graphically.

MARIE’s Full Instruction Set

4.8 MARIE

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4.13 A Discussion on Decoding

• A computer’s control unit keeps things synchronized,

making sure that bits flow to the correct components as the bits are needed.

• There are two general ways in which a control unit

can be implemented: microprogrammed control and hardwired control.

– With microprogrammed control, a small program is placed into read-only memory. – Hardwired controllers implement this program using digital logic components.

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4.13 A Discussion on Decoding

• Your text provides a complete list of the register

transfer language for each of MARIE’s instructions.

• The microoperations given by each RTL define the
• peration of MARIE’s control unit.
• Each microoperation consists of a distinctive signal

pattern that is interpreted by the control unit.

– Recall, the RTL for the Add instruction is:

MAR X MBR M[MAR] AC AC + MBR

← ← ←

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This is the MARIE data path shown graphically. Data and instructions are transferred using a common bus. Some additional pathways speed up computation.

Data can be put on the common bus in the same clock cycle in which data can be put on these

• ther pathways (allowing these events to take

place in parallel).

4.13 A Discussion on Decoding

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4.13 A Discussion on Decoding

• Let us define two sets of

three signals.

• One set, P2, P1, P0,

controls reading from memory or a register, and the other set consisting of P5, P4, P3, controls writing to memory or a register.

The next slide shows a close up view of MARIE’s MBR.

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4.13 A Discussion on Decoding

This register is enabled for reading when P0 and P1 are high, and it is enabled for writing when P3 and P4 are high

read write

MBR: 3=0112

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4.13 A Discussion on Decoding

• Careful inspection of MARIE’s RTL reveals that

the ALU has only three operations: add, subtract, and clear.

– We will also define a fourth do nothing state.

• The entire set of MARIE’s control signals consists
• f:

– Register controls: P0 through P5, MR and MW. – ALU controls: A0, A1, and LALT to control the ALU's data source. – Timing: T0 through T7 and counter reset Cr

The counter is reset if fewer than eight clock cycles are needed for an instruction

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4.13 A Discussion on Decoding

• Consider MARIE’s Add instruction. Its RTL is:

MAR X MBR M[MAR] AC AC + MBR

• After an Add instruction is fetched, the address, X, is

in the rightmost 12 bits of the IR, which has a datapath address of 7 (=1112).

• X is copied to the MAR, which has a datapath

address of 1 (=0012).

• Thus we need to raise signals P2, P1, and P0 to read

from the IR, and raise signal P3 to write to the MAR.

← ← ←

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4.13 A Discussion on Decoding

• Here is the complete signal sequence for MARIE’s

Add instruction (the fetch uses clock cycles T0, T1, and T2):

P3 P2 P1 P0 T3

: MAR X

P4 P3 T4 MR : MBR M[MAR] Cr A0 P5 T5 LALT

: AC AC + MBR

[Reset counter]

• These signals are ANDed with combinational logic to

bring about the desired machine behavior.

• The next slide shows the timing diagram for this

instruction.

← ←

IR: 111, MAR: 001, Memory: 000, MBR: 011, AC: 100

←

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• Notice the concurrent signal

states during each machine cycle: C3 through C5.

P3 P2 P1 P0 T3 : MAR X P4 P3 T4 MR : MBR M[MAR] Cr A0 P5 T5 LALT : AC AC + MBR [Reset counter]

← ← ←

4.13 A Discussion on Decoding

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4.13 A Discussion on Decoding

To increment the PC we introduce a new control signal incrPC. Then the signal states for the fetch are:

P3 P1 T0 : MAR PC P5 P4 P3 T1 MR : IR M[MAR] incrPC T2 : PC PC + 1 [Reset counter]

IR: 111, MAR: 001, Memory: 000, PC: 010

← ← ←

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4.13 A Discussion on Decoding

• We note that the signal pattern just described is

the same whether our machine used hardwired or microprogrammed control.

• In hardwired control, the bit pattern of machine

instruction in the IR is decoded by combinational logic.

• The decoder output works with the control signals
• f the current system state to produce a new set
• f control signals.

A block diagram of a hardwired control unit is shown on the following slide.

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4.13 A Discussion on Decoding

For a 4-bit opcode, the decoder could have as as many as 16

• utput signals.

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4.13 A Discussion on Decoding

MARIE’s instruction decoder. (Partial)

JnS: 0, Load: 1, Store: 2, Add: 3 12 bits

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4.13 A Discussion on Decoding

A ring counter that counts from 0 to 5

Initially, all of the flip-flop inputs are low except from the input to D0 (because of the inverted OR gate on the

• ther outputs). This bit circulates through the ring.

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4.13 A Discussion on Decoding

This is the hardwired logic for MARIE’s Add = 0011 instruction.

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4.13 A Discussion on Decoding

• In microprogrammed control, microcode

instructions produces control signal changes.

• Machine instructions are the input for a

microprogram that converts the 1s and 0s of an instruction into control signals.

• The microprogram is stored in firmware (ROM,

PROM, or EPROM), which is also called the control store.

• A microcode instruction is retrieved during each

clock cycle.

ROM: Read-Only Memory PROM: Programmable ROM EPROM: Erasable PROM 20

4.13 A Discussion on Decoding

This is how a generic microprogrammed control unit might look.

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• If MARIE were microprogrammed, the

microinstruction format might look like this:

• MicroOp1 and MicroOp2 contain binary codes for

each instruction. Jump is a single bit indicating that the value in the Dest field is a valid address and should be placed in the microsequencer (circuitry that that serves as the program counter).

4.13 A Discussion on Decoding

Because some micro-instructions can be done in parallel (on the same tick of the clock), we will allow for two micro-operations to be carried out on each tick of the clock.

4.13 A Discussion on Decoding

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• The table below contains MARIE’s microoperation

codes along with the corresponding RTL:

4.13 A Discussion on Decoding

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• The first nine lines of MARIE’s microprogram are given

below (using RTL for clarity):

4.13 A Discussion on Decoding

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• The first four lines initiates the fetch-decode-execute cycle.
• The remaining lines are the beginning of a jump table.

4.13 A Discussion on Decoding

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4.13 A Discussion on Decoding

JnS Load Store Add 26 27

• The microinstructions for the Store and Add instructions.

4.13 A Discussion on Decoding

0101010! MAR X! MBR AC! 0! 0000000! 0101011! M[MAR] MBR! NOP! 1! 0000000! 0101100! MAR X! NOP! 0! 0000000! 0101101! MBR M[MAR]! NOP! 0! 0000000! 0101110! AC AC + MBR! NOP! 1! 0000000! ← ← ← ← ← ← Address! MicroOp 1! MicroOp 2! Jump! Dest!

Store Add 28

• It’s important to remember that a microprogrammed

control unit works like a system in miniature.

• Microinstructions are fetched, decoded, and executed

in the same manner as regular instructions.

• This extra level of instruction interpretation is what

makes microprogrammed control slower than hardwired control.

• The advantages of microprogrammed control are that

it can support very complicated instructions and only the microprogram needs to be changed if the instruction set changes (or an error is found).

Microprogrammed control dominates the personal computer market.

4.13 A Discussion on Decoding

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4.14 Real World Architectures

• MARIE shares many features with modern

architectures but it is not an accurate depiction of them.

• In the following slides, we briefly examine two

machine architectures.

• We will look at an Intel architecture, which is a CISC

machine and MIPS, which is a RISC machine.

– CISC is an acronym for complex instruction set computer. – RISC stands for reduced instruction set computer.

We delve into the RISC versus CISC argument in Chapter 9.

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4.14 Real World Architectures

• The classic Intel architecture, the 8086, first member
• f the x86 family, was born in 1979. It is a CISC

architecture.

• It was adopted by IBM for its famed PC (later

dubbed the XT), which was released in 1981.

• The 8086 operated on 16-bit data words and

supported 20-bit memory addresses.

• Later, to lower costs, the 8-bit bus 8088 was
• introduced. Like the 8086, it used 20-bit memory

addresses.

What was the largest memory that the 8086 could address?

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4.14 Real World Architectures

• The 8086 had four 16-bit general-purpose registers

(AX, BX, CX, and DX) that could be accessed by the half-word.

• It also had a flags register, an instruction register,

and a stack accessed through the values in two

• ther registers, the stack pointer (SP) and the base

pointer (BP). SP was used to reference the top of the stack.

BP was used to reference parameters pushed onto the stack.

• The 8086 had no built in floating-point processing.
• In 1980, Intel released the 8087 numeric

coprocessor, but few users elected to install them because of their cost.

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4.14 Real World Architectures

• In 1985, Intel introduced the 32-bit 80386.

An "E" prefix (which stood for "extended") was added to the register names (EAX, EBX, ECX, and EDX).

• It also had no built-in floating-point unit.
• The 80486, introduced in 1989, was an 80386 that had

built-in floating-point processing and cache memory.

• The 80386 and 80486 offered downward compatibility

with the 8086 and 8088.

• Software written for the smaller word systems was

directed to use the lower 16 bits of the 32-bit registers.

4.14 Real World Architectures

EAX register, broken into parts

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4.14 Real World Architectures

• Intel’s Pentium 4 (2000) introduced a brand new

NetBurst architecture.

• Speed enhancing features include:

– Hyperthreading – Hyperpipelining – Wider instruction pipeline – Execution trace cache (holds decoded instructions for possible reuse) multilevel cache and instruction pipelining.

• Intel, along with many others, is marrying many of

the ideas of RISC architectures with microprocessors that are largely CISC.

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4.14 Real World Architectures

• The MIPS family of CPUs has been one of the most

successful in its class.

• In 1986 the first MIPS CPU was announced.
• It had a 32-bit word size and could address 4GB of

memory.

• Over the years, MIPS processors have been used in

general purpose computers as well as in games (Nintendo and Sony).

• The MIPS architecture now offers 32- and 64-bit

versions.

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4.14 Real World Architectures

• MIPS was one of the first RISC microprocessors.
• The original MIPS architecture had only 55 different

instructions, as compared with the 8086 which had

• ver 100.
• MIPS was designed with performance in mind: It is a

load/store architecture, meaning that only the load and store instructions can access memory.

• The large number of registers in the MIPS

architecture keeps bus traffic to a minimum.

How does this design affect performance?

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• The major components of a computer system

are its control unit, registers, memory, ALU, and data path.

• A built-in clock keeps everything synchronized.
• Control units can be microprogrammed or

hardwired.

• Hardwired control units give better performance,

while microprogrammed units are more adaptable to changes.

Chapter 4 Conclusion

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• Computers run programs through iterative fetch-

decode-execute cycles.

• Computers can run programs that are in

machine language.

• An assembler converts mnemonic code to

machine language.

• The Intel architecture is an example of a CISC

architecture; MIPS is an example of a RISC architecture.

Chapter 4 Conclusion

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End of Chapter 4