SLIDE 1 EDUCATIONAL REFORMS IN
THE UNITED STATES: WHAT
HAVE WE LEARNED?
MARCIA C. LINN UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA, BERKELEY JERUSALEM, ISRAEL, NOVEMBER 1, 2016
SLIDE 2 Factors shaping reform in the US
Global competitiveness Leadership & foundation support National policies Insights into learning and instruction Advances in technology
Sputnik Satellite
SLIDE 3 Curricular reforms of the 1960s
Motivated by Soviet launch of Sputnik in 1956 Funded by NSF, founded in 1953 Led by physicists, chemists, & biologists The Physical Science Study Committee (PSSC) sought to: “….emphasize fundamental principles in physics, encouraging understanding as
SLIDE 4 Curricula emphasized basic science
PSSC led by Jerrold Zacharias, a physicist at MIT, linked time, space, and matter. Experiments introduced wave motion using ripple tanks, connected ripple tank findings to propagation of light waves, and eventually to the kinematics of special relativity
PSSC Ripple Tank
SLIDE 5
Woods Hole Conference
Research foundation "We begin with the hypothesis that any subject can be taught effectively in some intellectually honest form to any child at any stage of development." (Bruner, 1960, p.33) Thus was born the spiral curriculum.
SLIDE 6 PSSC was difficult for most students
Designers of curricula in the 1960s often blamed teachers for lack of success Criticisms by trial teachers had little effect (Welch, 1979). NSF funded 3-week teacher summer institutes to help.
- A science teacher community
emerged
SLIDE 7 Impacts of NSF funded curricula
The NSF materials did not increase science enrollment (Welch, 1979) Comparison studies showed that the NSF materials improved performance on tests aligned with the goals of the materials (Shymansky et al., 1990) Performance on tests primarily emphasizing recall of details was unchanged
Shymansky, J. A., Hedges, L. V., & Woodworth, G. (1990). A reassessment of the effects of inquiry-based science curricula of the 60's on student performance. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 27(2), 127-144. doi:10.1002/tea.3660270205.
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Long term impact
Spiral curriculum became circular: Third International Mathematics and Science Study (1995): American curriculum is a “mile wide and an inch deep.”
SLIDE 9
Proliferation of curricular topics
Multiple efforts to articulate the standards for science exacerbate the problem 1990 AAAS produces Science for all Americans, Benchmarks, and the Atlas 1996 National Research Council produces the National Science Education Standards
SLIDE 10 Failed efforts to achieve coherence
The Atlas of Science Literacy grows exponentially. Advocates from each scientific and engineering discipline argue for their topics
SLIDE 11
No Child Left Behind abandoned science
Mandates annual assessment of reading and mathematics. Schools teach test taking Teaching of science is neglected.
SLIDE 12 Assessments shaped instruction
National and state assessments emphasize recall of details. Typical item: To keep a heavy box sliding across a carpeted floor at constant speed, a person must continuously exert a constant force. This force is used primarily to overcome which of the following forces:
- A. Air resistance
- B. The weight of the box
- C. The frictional force exerted by the floor on the box
- D. The gravitational force exerted by the Earth on the box
SLIDE 13
Science education research funded
1980 NSF Science Education directorate started a small research program that was thwarted by Reagan funding cuts. 1984 Advanced Applications of Technology program led by Andrew Molnar 1995 NSF research centers led by partnerships of: researchers, discipline experts, technologists, and teachers
SLIDE 14 Learning sciences synthesize results in design principles
1991 Journal of the Learning Sciences 1992 Design-based research methods 2006 Design principles database
SLIDE 15
Research on student intuitive ideas
Students bring multiple ideas to science class: What do middle school students say causes the seasons? Discuss your prediction with a neighbor
SLIDE 16 Seasons depend on whether the earth is facing the sun. The earth is tilted so sometimes it faces the sun and sometimes it doesn’t.
The earth is closer to the sun in Summer.
The seasons are caused by the hours of
the days are longer; in winter they are shorter.
SLIDE 17
Expect cultural influences
Brunei Equator
SLIDE 18 Build on student ideas rather than transmitting information
Each idea has some merit
- It is hotter, closer to a heat source
- Days are longer in summer
- Tilt is valuable insight
If ignore student ideas…... “Seasons are caused by the distance from the sun but in science class the answer is different”
Misconceptions reconceived (Smith, diSessa, & Roschelle, 1993) Knowledge integration framework (Linn, Songer, & Eylon, 1996)
SLIDE 19
Design inquiry around contemporary issues
Connect seasons to authentic problem: Design a house for energy efficiency
SLIDE 20 Next Generation Science Standards
Reform led by partnership of discipline experts, learning scientists, and school leaders
learning sciences
develop coherent understanding
needs of specific students, schools, and leaders.
SLIDE 21 NGSS Discipline Experts
HELEN R. QUINN (Chair), Physics, Stanford University WYATT W. ANDERSON, Genetics, University of Georgia, Athens TANYA ATWATER, Earth Science, University of California, Santa Barbara RODOLFO DIRZO, Biology, Stanford University PHILLIP A. GRIFFITHS, Physics, Princeton, New Jersey DUDLEY R. HERSCHBACH, Chemistry, Harvard University JOHN C. MATHER, NASA, Greenbelt, Maryland REBECCA R. RICHARDS-KORTUM, Bioengineering, Rice University
SLIDE 22 NGSS Learning Scientists
PHILIP BELL, Learning Sciences, University of Washington, Seattle THOMAS B. CORCORAN, Teachers College, Columbia University JONATHAN OSBORNE, Learning Science, Stanford University JAMES W. PELLEGRINO, Assessment, University of Illinois, Chicago BRIAN REISER, Learning Science, Northwestern University WALTER G. SECADA, Education, University of Miami DEBORAH C. SMITH, Curriculum, Pennsylvania State University
SLIDE 23 NGSS School Leaders
LINDA P.B. KATEHI, Office of the Chancellor, University of California, Davis BRETT D. MOULDING, Utah Schools, North Ogden STEPHEN L. PRUITT, Superintendents, Georgia Department of Education
SLIDE 24
NGSS & Learning Sciences research
Scaffold inquiry to promote autonomy, lifelong learning Design learning progressions to promote coherent understanding Embed assessment in instruction Leverage technology for learning
SLIDE 25
NGSS Components
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SLIDE 27 Cross-cutting concepts Patterns Cause and effect Scale Systems and models Energy and matter Structure and function Stability and change
SLIDE 28
Core Ideas
SLIDE 29 Pedagogical Framework
Knowledge integration informs design of instruction, assessment, and professional development
2000 2004 2009 2011 [2015]
SLIDE 30
Curricular example
Web-based Inquiry Science Environment (WISE) Designed based on learning sciences research to follow the knowledge integration framework (Linn & Eylon, 2011).
SLIDE 31 Thermodynamics challenge
You work for store that serves hot drinks like coffee and tea, as well as cold drinks like sodas and slushies. Customers are complaining that the hot drinks cool down too fast and the cold drinks warm up too fast.
Your challenge: design cups that keep drinks warm or cold
Do you need two different materials to keep hot drinks hot and
cold drinks cold or could you use the same material for both?
Design a study to find out!
I will use this example: http://wise.berkeley.edu/project/18067?constraints=false#/vle/node21
SLIDE 32 Minimalist student report: This graph shows what we did to get the right answer
Tests: Clay, aluminum with hot beverage in cold air Glass, plastic, Styrofoam [for
beverage in hot air Wood with warm beverage in cold air
SLIDE 33 Systematic student report
As you can see the Styrofoam material is the best to use for cold and hot drinks because it keeps them either cold or hot longer than the other materials. The styrofoam cups cooled or warmed up the drinks the slowest out of all of the
- materials. There is no other possibilities
to use for cold and hot drink cup materials.
We want to improve the computer model by making the graph go a little faster when recording the data.
SLIDE 34
Connections to NGSS
Cross cutting concepts (patterns) and core ideas (energy) Practices such as asking questions, using models, analyzing data… Problem that stimulates students to identify related issues [cost effectiveness, waste management, computer speed] Report serves as embedded assessment
SLIDE 35 Advances from Sputnik to NGSS
Funding stimulates educational research and reforms build on classroom research Leadership for reform includes learning scientists and teacher-leaders State Education Departments empowered to customize recommendations Reforms incorporate research to:
- Streamline number of core concepts
- Establish learning progressions
- Use cross-cutting concepts to promote coherence
SLIDE 36 Challenges: Professional development
Like the Sputnik reforms, NGSS neglects professional development Teachers expected to use the practices to guide their own development
- Professional Learning Communities offer
an excellent opportunity
SLIDE 37
Challenges: Curriculum
Curriculum left to each school, district, or state Textbook designers often make minimal changes to align with reforms
SLIDE 38 Opportunities: Assessment
Assessments could be embedded in
- instruction. Especially with technology
So far they are still in development Current examples uninspiring
SLIDE 39 Which aspects
this measure?
SLIDE 40
Conclusions
Reforms have advanced US science instruction 1960s strengthened basic science in textbooks and added hands-on experiments 2012 NGSS incorporated 50 years of research, focused on inquiry around contemporary problems, and leveraged technology
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Next steps
Advances from the 1960s to today reflect partnerships between discipline experts and learning scientists to improve science instructional materials Integration of curriculum, professional development, and student activities remains incomplete
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