library .uns.ac.id digilib.uns.ac.id CHAPTER II LITERATURE REVIEW - - PDF document

library.uns.ac.id digilib.uns.ac.id CHAPTER II LITERATURE REVIEW

• A. The Nature of Information Processing in Learning Context
• 1. The Concept of Human Learning

Information is the core of civilization as it affects human life. The growth and the development of the human depend on how well they exchange the information. Regarding this case, Paas, Renkl, and Sweller (2003, p. 2) state that the information processing goes through four steps, namely perception, attention, selection, and organization. Those four steps will end up in long term memory where the brain accumulates, stores, and integrates the memory. Moreover, Bodemer, Ploetzner, Bruchmaller, & Hacker (in Zolna, 2007, p. 141) believe that the integration of mental process is considered important in learning. Sweller, Ayres, Kalyuga (2011, p. 129) also support this statement by arguing that mental integration plays its role in processing separate yet related sources of information. As the information is processed in human brain, the modes of the information will automatically influence how well a human digests the information obtained. The various modes of information generate the various outcomes as well. The modes of information can be in the form of vocal, non-vocal, verbal, non-verbal in which they are addressed to the specific communication situation such as intrapersonal, interpersonal, group, and public. This statement is supported by Mayer (1989) that says the mixture of media increases the likelihood that people will learn a large amount of information from many sources. According to Altas (2014), the point of mixture of media by stating that the combination of verbal and non-verbal representations of knowledge will generate the most effective learning environment – it is so called as mixed-modality approach. Several pieces of research have been conducted in order to explore how well the 10

library.uns.ac.id digilib.uns.ac.id 11 human receives and processes the information of the single mode and the combination of them. As what already being investigated by Mayer (1989) about how the human receive the dual representation, the cognitive load theory is coined to make the clear understanding about the capacity of human brain. The human sensory channels are designed to process sufficient information; however, the sensory channel will not optimally work if each sensory channel receives a large amount of information. It is due to the limited capacity of the human brain in receiving the input through each sensory

• channel. Therefore, it is later known as ‘cognitive load’ in which it

assumes that the learner is not supposed to process a large amount of information through each channel at a time (Chiu & Churcill, 2016). In another side, it also can be concluded that the various representation that the learners receive through their sensory channels will promote the information processing in their brain as each channel has its own limited

• capacity. It is the way to optimize the human brain to digest the sufficient

information with its various modes. As a result, it must be taken into account that the multimedia used in educational field must be designed as detail as possible to optimizes the ability of human brain to process the multimedia input and to avoid the cognitive load of the human brain that can reduce the learners’ focus in processing the information.

• 2. Using Multimedia in Integrating Information

A number of research have explored how well the human brain process the information using more than one mode. In terms of language learning, the integration of words and pictures is considered to support the instructional materials when mixing the modality by replacing the text with narration (Zolna, 2007, p. 142). Many educators agree to the statement saying that multimedia improves learning.

library.uns.ac.id digilib.uns.ac.id 12 In defining multimedia, some experts have the similar understanding of how multimedia is defined. Campbell (1997) states that multimedia is the inclusion of sound, video, graphics, and animation that the writers do to have a multisensory approach to publication for extending readership. Meanwhile, Mayer (1997), as mentioned earlier, defines multimedia as the presentation of more than one mode, such as pictures and words. In other related researches conducted by Mayer, he also explores how the information is delivered in more than one mode and processed in the working memory until it is stored in long-term memory. It is in line with the definition stated by Ploetzner, Fillisch, Gewald, and Ruf (2015, p.3) that multimedia deals with the verbal information that can be mentally transformed into a pictorial representation and vice versa. This is also similar to the definition of Chiu and Churchill (2015, p.2) that mention multimedia as the presentation of data or information through the two channels – audio and visual. Therefore, based on the above-mentioned definitions from the experts, it can be concluded that multimedia is the presentation of data or information consisting of more than one mode received by two channels that can be transformed into other modes in order to have multisensory approach. The combination of audio and pictorial information eases the brain to process and integrate the information. Mayer (2009) highlights two approaches of multimedia design, they are technology-centered and learner-

• centered. Learning combining those two is believed to have a better
• utcome. The exploration of those approaches are as follows:
• a. Technology-Centered

It is started by how capable the multimedia technology provides and accesses the information. The issue that may arise is the way how the human uses the cutting edge technology in designing multimedia

• presentation. It deals whether or not the technology integrates to the

human’s abilities in creating multimedia presentation.

library.uns.ac.id digilib.uns.ac.id 13

• b. Learner-Centered

The starting point in learner-centered approach deals with the way how the human mind works to aid the human cognition. The human or the learner is required to think and use the conscious mental process in

• rder to adapt the multimedia technology.

Responding to the human cognition, Yang et al. (2012, p. 209) propose that there are two distinct yet interconnected systems that make the human process the information that has different modes (i.e. visual and non-visual modes) in different channels. The system of human mind has its own way of processing the information. It is also affected by the prior knowledge in human mind and the new knowledge obtained from the new information. In the study conducted by Yang et al. (2012, p. 210), the prior knowledge bridges the interaction between types of graphics and information processing behavior. Their research result suggests that the students’ performance with prior knowledge has a better outcome in the process of information decoding and

• integration. They are also allowed to think and link the information across

various modes of presentation. Previously, Mayer (2005) explains how the information turns to prior

• knowledge. Multimedia presentation provides both words and pictures that will

go through the sensory memory. The input will be received by the ears and the eyes in which the selected information will be transferred into the working memory in the form of sounds and images. Afterward, the integration process

• ccurs when the organizing words and the organizing images turn to verbal

model and pictorial model – in which the result is commonly called as prior

• knowledge. Therefore, the multimedia learning has two aspects to be

considered in processing the information, they are the approaches and the human knowledge. Those are inseparable because they affect the information

• utcome.

library.uns.ac.id digilib.uns.ac.id 14

• 3. The Property of Different Kinds of Media as the Content Delivery

Media as the integral constituent of any educational context (Chan et al., 2011) have several classifications based on its form or mode. They also claim that media and education are interrelated since media enhance the teacher’s instruction by making it visible to students. In line with Chan et al., Center for Implementing Technology in Education (2016) discusses the importance of multimedia instructional approach that is able to guide the students in noticing the word, sentence, passage, and image at once. It is based on the above-mentioned statement that multimedia and information processing affect each other in which the media can help the students focus on the pertinent information to comprehend or revise. Therefore, to make it be clearly defined, multimedia need to be classified into several categories. Laurillard (2012) classifies media based on its pedagogical function in the conversational framework, they are:

• a. Narrative media, which facilitates the presentational media that are

non-computer based and non-interactive, for example, print, audio- cassette, television or film, and digital disc. This type of media is considered to be one-way communication.

• b. Interactive media, which enables the users to navigate and select the
• content. The students tend to be more engaged in the learning when they

use this type of media. The examples are hypertext, hypermedia, and multimedia resources containing text, graphics, audio, video or any combinations of those all. It is later known as multimedia.

• c. Adaptive media, which is able to receive the input from the users, to

transform the state of the model, and to display the output. The media allows themselves to respond to the users’ actions. This types of media are as follow: virtual environments, tutorial programs, and tutorial simulations.

• d. Communicative media, which allows the users to directly involve

during the use. This type of media tends to interact more with the users through text/graphics, audio, video or any combinations of these three

library.uns.ac.id digilib.uns.ac.id 15

• modes. The examples of communicative media are computer-mediated

conferencing, digital document discussion environment (D3E), audio conferencing and video- conferencing.

• e. Productive media, which facilitate the users to harness or control

the productive capability of any electronic media. It means that the users can build a product by themselves using this type of media to get the insight in order to enhance their learning. In attempt to simplify the knowledge or information in the classroom, instructional media are considerably used to foster the learning as it contains words and pictures (Mayer, 2004). In his prior research, Mayer (2001) previously categorizes the kinds of instructional media as the medium of communication such as book-based communications and computer-based communications. He further explains that the medium can be in the form of pictures such as static graphics (illustrations or photos) or dynamic graphics (animation or video clips). In line with the previous theory, Mayer (2004) also expands the statement that the above-mentioned examples are included in the textbook chapters, online lessons containing animation and narration, and interactive simulation games. By themselves, all of the different kinds of media cover some aspects that are attached to the media. Weidenmann (2006) classifies the aspects below that are included in the media, they are: a) Hardware It is defined as the medium of delivery of any modes. The different modes particularly use different hardware depends on the

• function. The mode of picture can be delivered using LCD Projector,

the mode of sound can be delivered using speaker, and the mode of words can be delivered using old-fashioned hardware such as chalkboard. b) Software As the hardware is used to deliver the content, the software must be transmitted since it is the content of delivery. In short, the

library.uns.ac.id digilib.uns.ac.id 16 software can be called as the program of the media itself, for example, the video film or Flash animation. c) Symbol systems The symbol system is commonly known as how the modality is

• coded. All of the information has its own symbol system. In

understanding the information, the people should be able to read how the information is coded. d) Sensory Channels As the information is coded, the human needs to catch the information using their sensory channel. This activity is widely known as ‘coding’ in which the people process the information to be more meaningful. The examples of sensory channels are the eyes, ears, hands and so on. Each information is processed using different sensory channel based on its modes. e) Message After the information is coded and processed, the information turns to be the meaningful message. Weidenmann (2006) emphasized that the message is transmitted through the symbols system, processed through the sensory channels, and further is formed to be the message. Based on the categorization of multimedia as the medium of communication, it can be concluded that each medium has its own system in bringing the information to be processed by the human brain as the meaningful message. Each medium addresses the different sensory channel and brings the different representation. Therefore, the teacher as the facilitator of the learning needs to take into account the use of the different kinds of medium along with its function as it can promote the effective

• learning. Medium, in this case, functions as the medium of communication

in teaching and learning process; therefore, the role of human remains essential.

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• B. The Use of Multimedia for Academic Purposes
• 1. The Cognitive Principle Underlying Multimedia Instruction

Applying multimedia instruction means implementing its underlying principles in order to achieve both the learning aims and

• bjectives. In this case, Mayer (2001, p.31) initially analyzes those

underlying principles to investigate how the combination of modes is able to enhance the students’ learning. The multimedia principle proposed by Mayer (2001) states that the combination of words and pictures promotes learning. In terms of modality, Mayer (2001) believes that combining words and pictures can gain the interest from the reader

• r audience. Words have been used earlier in the instruction before

pictorial format is widely known due to the technology development along the ages. Meanwhile, in terms of cognitive principle, Mayer assumes three underlying theories of cognitive principle, as follows: a) Dual-Channel Assumption It deals with the way how human possess separate channels to process both visual/ pictorial information and auditory/ verbal

• information. It is incorporated with one of the aspects proposed by

Weidelmann (2006) which earlier states about the sensory channels. In this assumption, the information is processed based on its modality after the human sensory channel receives the stimulus. Mayer summarizes the finding by stating that each channel has limited processing capacity. In terms of multimedia presentation, the different experience in using the sensory channel occurs in the audiences having less existing knowledge and those have more existing knowledge. When the on-screen text is presented, the visual channel works since the input is received through the eyes. However, the experienced audience will have dual channels which are the visual and auditory channel since they are able to convert images into sound.

library.uns.ac.id digilib.uns.ac.id 18 b) Limited Capacity Assumption It deals with the statement that humans are limited in the amount

• f information that can be processed in each channel at one time.

When the stimulus is in the form of narration, only a few words are processed by the human. Moreover, if the input is in the form of animation, the human only process a few images at one time. Therefore, due to the limited capacity of information processing, the human is pushed to decide which information that is more important to be digested than others. There are two possibilities: the repeated input and the input attracting the human. The further step is making the existing knowledge and the selected information connected to be processed easily in human brain. In this case, the role of background knowledge is essential since it helps the human brain to filter the new and the old information. In terms of multimedia presentation, c) Active Processing Assumption It deals with how humans actively engage in cognitive processing in order to construct a coherent mental representation of their experiences. Mayer mentions some activities of students’ involvement that belong to active processing they are: organizing incoming information, and integrating incoming information. In terms of multimedia presentation, the input is received by the sensory memory or channel such as ears and eyes. The input then is selected to be processed in working memory. The selecting words

• r images are processed to build the verbal model and pictorial
• model. The input is further integrated with the prior knowledge in

long-term memory. Mayer also mentions the implications for multimedia design, they are: (1) the presented material should have a coherent structure and (2) the message should guide the learner for how to build the structure. This is also in line in what has been mentioned by Dubois & Vial (2000) regarding the elements attached

library.uns.ac.id digilib.uns.ac.id 19 in the presentation which only meaningful under certain circumstance.

• 2. The Application of Multimedia Principle in Academic Speaking

Presentation Mayer (2003, p. 128) mentions that multimedia instructional message is presented in words and pictures simultaneously in order to foster the meaningful learning. Therefore, he also formulates the instructional methods that can foster the meaningful learning – slide, coherence effect, spatial contiguity effect, and personalization effect. Multimedia effect refers to the theory stating that the students learn more deeply from the explanation delivered using multimedia consisting of words and pictures. It is because the multimedia allows the learners to use two channels. Coherence effect refers to the theory stating that the students learn more deeply when the extraneous or redundant explanation is not

• included. It is caused by the problems in student understanding that will

be interfered they receive the information which is extraneous, redundant,

• r irrelevant. Contiguity effect refers to the theory stating that the students

learn more deeply if the explanation in the form of corresponding words and pictures is delivered near each other. If it is delivered far from each

• ther, the students’ understanding will create the gap. Personalization

effect refers to the theory that the students learn more deeply from the multimedia explanation when it is delivered in conversational style than the formal one. It will make the student experience the human-to-human conversation that can help them in understanding the material. Considering the effectiveness of multimedia-based presentation, it can be considered that the trend of multimedia learning becomes popular in educational sector in recent years (Kamatchi & Stanley, 2018, p. 5). In relation to the academic speaking context, Kamatchi & Stanley (2018) believe that multimedia-based presentation is associated with the demands

• f present condition that require the students to actively participate and

library.uns.ac.id digilib.uns.ac.id 20 involve in the learning. Moreover, multimedia offers the various solutions to the learners’ need whose sensory channel can easily receive the different kinds of modes at one time enable it to enhance the effective presentation. In this case, multimedia is in the context of material delivery whether it is between the teacher with the students or the presenter with the audience. The material delivery is presented using multiple modes that will help the learner to process the information into meaningful message which later builds the knowledge. It is also supported by Lutz, Guthrie, Smith, Buehl, and Beck (2006, p. 4) by arguing that the emphasis on learning and knowledge goals must be practiced by the teacher in order to engage the students in the classroom. Substantially, the English for Academic Purposes (EAP) has been

• ffered in the universities and other tertiary level programs. Nevertheless,

the subject to teach the students to perform the oral presentation in English is somewhat put aside. Berret and Liu (2009), in their research, reveal that the students entering university often has no prior knowledge and basic skill to perform oral presentation. Therefore, they will find it difficult to do that in academic context which demands them to have this type of skill to be successful in the learning process. Therefore, it is necessary to investigate the implementation of oral presentation, especially in academic context to prepare the students to convey their ideas in front of the public academically.

• 3. The Considerations in Designing Multimedia-based Presentation

In designing and preparing the multimedia-based presentation, the presenters use their personal preferences that are reflected in their multimedia-based presentation. The preferences will later become their consideration in designing the multimedia-based presentation. The previous studies about the preparation of multimedia-based presentation have been carried out to know the strategy that the presenters employ. This strategy becomes the basis of how the multimedia-based presentation

library.uns.ac.id digilib.uns.ac.id 21 will be implemented in the classroom and give a positive effect to the audience as well as to the learning. Broadly speaking, the multimedia principles still become the benchmark on how the presentation is

• designed. In terms of the slide consideration which is presented in the

academic setting, Alley and Robertshaw (2004) discuss the layout aspect. Layout deals with the details of the slide such as the lines, the lists, the headline as well as its form and position, and images. This finding is then elaborated by Garner et al., (2009) by dividing it into three aspects: the slide structure, slide density, and the classification of images. Those aspects are also explored and connected to the multimedia principles to make this current research has in line concept. First, slide structure represents how the slide is structured based

• n the use of headline/heading in the form of topic phrase and the bullet
• lists. The supporting images also contribute to those headline and bullet
• list. The heading in the form of phrase is connected to the space of the

slide since the longer the headline, the less space will be available for

• ther supportive elements such as graphic, diagram, or images. Moreover,

regarding the use of bullet lists that is to explain the multiple texts drawn from the headline is related to cognitive load. The longer the text, the more possible cognitive load to be in a multimedia-based presentation. Second, slide density represents the amount of text and words written down in the

• slide. This also correlates to the time the presenter used in a slide to

present the whole slide. The cognitive load possibly occurs in such presentation containing many texts and is presented in a very short time. Third, the classification of images represents the function of the images to the presentation. It covers four characteristics, they are decorative, representative, organizational, and explanative. This deals with how the images support the content of the presentation and how the integration of both aspects enhances multimedia-based presentation. Regarding the preparation of multimedia-based presentation, Hosseini and Kamal (2013) also draw the four big considerations

library.uns.ac.id digilib.uns.ac.id 22 consisting of several strategies in making the effective multimedia-based

• presentation. First consideration is making a plan that focuses on the

conceptual aspects. It consists of four strategies: identifying a particular content based on the topic, being aware of the audience, assuming the role

• f a teacher rather than a transmitter, and determining a suitable learning
• experience. Second consideration is making a scenario that focuses on the

technical aspect. It contains three strategies: making a map, creating a logical sequence of presenting concepts and organizing the content. The third consideration is selecting the techniques that focus on the technical aspect. It contains four strategies: deciding about using the characteristics, keeping a coordinated style, engaging the mind of the audience, and making your slide interesting. In this consideration, the presenter needs to utilize the most suitable option in the presentation tool (Hosseini & Kamal, 2013) by selecting appropriate font, design of background, bullet points, transition and animation. The fourth consideration is practicing the presentation. The strategies cover how to deliver the opening and closing, present without reading out the slides, keep eye-contact, and consider the situation. Moreover, Clark & Lyon (2004) add that in the consideration of multimedia-based presentation, several classifications should be taken into account. It deals with the function of the elements attached in multimedia-based presentation. The following are the classification proposed by Clark & Lyon (2000): Decorative (Add aesthetic appeal or humor), Representational (Depict an object in a realistic fashion), Mnemonic (Provide retrieval cues for factual information), Organizational (Show qualitative relationships among content), Relational (Show quantitative relationships among two or more variables), Transformational (Show changes in objects over time or space), Interpretive (Illustrate a theory, principle, or cause-and-effect relationships).

library.uns.ac.id digilib.uns.ac.id 23 Based on the theories above, it can be concluded that there are several considerations in designing the multimedia-based presentation. Each of the consideration has an effect on the effectiveness of the presentation both in the presentation document and its delivery. The considerations of designing the multimedia-based presentation are as follows: slide structure (heading, bullet list), slide density (amount of words in each slide), and the classification of an image (decorative, representative, organizational, and explanative). The aspect of designing multimedia-based presentation use those aforementioned aspects since they cover the multimedia principles in a detailed and complete way.

• 4. The Processes of Cognitive Theory in Multimedia-based Presentation

In general, human processing mind has several stages to process the information which is transferred from any medium or formats. The input will be processed as the knowledge and stored in long-term memory if the human brain can receive the input well. Nevertheless, if there is a lack

• f input or redundant input received by the human brain, the information

will only be stored in a working memory and cannot be completely

• processed. It then causes the information to only be stored in short-term
• memory. In terms of educational context, this phenomenon must be

avoided since the learners need to absorb the information to be processed as a meaningful knowledge and to be stored in long-term memory. Therefore, understanding the process of cognitive theory in the classroom learning is required by the teacher or any other stakeholders. In Mayer’s prior research (2003, p. 37), the human memory is divided into three, namely sensory memory, working memory, and long- term memory. The information input is initially received by the sensory memory through several sensory channels, such as eyes and ears. The visual representation will be received by the eyes in a short period of time in sensory memory, while the ears will receive auditory representation in a short period of time in sensory memory as well. After being well-

library.uns.ac.id digilib.uns.ac.id 24 received, the human brain will transfer the representation into the working memory to be processed. Working memory is used for temporally holding and manipulating knowledge in active consciousness (p.38). Therefore, the information is arranged, maintained, and integrated into the working memory which plays the role to transform the information to be the knowledge. Working memory store the information shorter than long-term memory, therefore, it cannot hold the information any longer. After being processed, the information is transferred to the long-term memory that can store a large amount of information. In this memory, the information has been turned into the meaningful knowledge that can be recalled anytime the human needs.

• C. Relevant Researches

In terms of the implementation of multimedia-based presentation, Hertz (2016) conducted the research entitled “PowerPoint Slides as Speaking Notes: The Influence of Speaking Anxiety on the Use of Text on Slides” that was aimed at finding out the correlation of speaking anxiety and the use of texts projected on the Powerpoint slides. There were 97 respondents involved in this study in which they were the social science scholars in three Dutch universities that previously had the presentation in any conference. The result showed that presenters with fewer years of academic experience suffered more from speaking anxiety than those with more experience. Hertz (2016) also found that the more time presenters spent rehearsing the presentation, the more words they used on the slides. He also found an indirect relation between speaking anxiety and the number

• f words through the length of time spent on rehearsal and a positive relation

between years of academic experience and the number of words. More experienced presenters have less speaking anxiety and use fewer words on their slides. The present study with the study conducted by Hertz (2016) uses the same theory of multimedia learning proposed by Mayer (2009). Hertz (2016) concerns on the presenter’s point of view regarding to the

library.uns.ac.id digilib.uns.ac.id 25 presentation preparation and relates it to the speaking anxiety, while this study fills the gap by concerning on how the presenter prepare the presentation along with how the audience understand the materials and engage with the presentation. Another empirical research discussing the use of multimedia-based presentation was also conducted by Fauzi (2016). His research entitled “The Application of Multimedia-based Presentation in Improving Students’ Speaking Skill” was aimed at determining the suitable materials that meet the students’ needs to improve their speaking skill and find out how multimedia-based presentation can effectively be used to improve the students’ speaking skill. This study was Classroom Action Research taken place in Economics Department in one of the private universities in Banten. The result showed that multimedia-based presentation can stimulate the students to do oral presentation since it contains animation, figures, sound,

• etc. Moreover, Fauzi (2016) also found that they must be assissted by the

basic material of grammar, vocabulary, and expressions in English since the respondents were from non-English Department. The present study and the study conducted by Fauzi (2016) similarly discusses the students’ presentation design. However, the present study explores deeply to the discussion of design along with its content since the object of this study is the students of English Education Department that have been accustomed to doing oral presentation using English. Furthermore, the deeper investigation regarding multimedia-based presentation was also conducted by Rodicio (2014) entitled “Support For Learning from Multimedia Explanations: A Comparison of Prompting, Signaling, and Questioning”. He concerns the presenter’s attitude when performing multimedia-based presentation. The research was aimed at examining the effectiveness of prompting, signaling, and questioning techniques in promoting multimedia learning and determining the most effective method among prompting, signaling, and questioning techniques to promote multimedia learning. The research involved 97 undergraduate

library.uns.ac.id digilib.uns.ac.id 26 students at the university in Spain. The results revealed that the participants in the questioning condition outperformed those in the prompting, signaling, and control condition. Moreover, participants in the signaling condition

• utperformed those in the control condition. This indicates that participants

receiving questions and feedback were better at applying the knowledge they acquired than those in the other conditions. Signals also assisted the participants to achieve better knowledge transfer. Similarly, the present study also explores the presenter and the audience behavior. The research conducted by Mazer (2013) entitled “Associations Among Teacher Communication Behaviors, Student Interest, and Engagement: A Validity Test” aimed at examining how specific teacher communication behaviors can influence students’ interest and engagement. There were 183 undergraduate students in Midwestern University participated in the study. The research initially explored the teacher’s communication behaviors in the classroom covering the immediacy and the clarity of teaching. The result revealed that 1) teacher immediacy was positively related to student emotional interest. 2) verbal clarity and written clarity were positively related to student cognitive interest, 3) student emotional and cognitive interest was positively associated with the four factors of student engagement, including oral in-class behaviors, silent in- class behavior, out-of-class behaviors, and thinking about the course

• content. The study conducted by Mayer (2013) was in the same line with

the present study in terms of how the communication and behavior done by the teacher or presenter in the classroom can influence the engagement. The study has wider context, whereas the present study attempted to focus on the in-class student engagement when the teaching or presentation occurred. In line with the aforementioned researches, the study about multimedia-based presentation was also undertaken by Sujono (2010) entitled “The Effects of Multimedia and Learning Style on Student Achievement in Online Electronics Course.” The research aims at investigating the effects of multimedia preferences and learning styles on

library.uns.ac.id digilib.uns.ac.id 27 undergraduate student achievement in an adaptive e-learning system for electronics course. The research was conducted under the experimental design involving 67 students which were divided into control and experimental group. The research reveals the difference between the students’ multimedia preferences and their learning style match with the material in online electronic course and that who do not match in relation to the students’ achievement.

• D. Conceptual Framework

To be in line with the development of technology, the presentation is created to be as attractive as possible to gain more interest and attention from the audience—in this case are the students. Multimedia-based presentation that is explored by Mayer (1997) is now being applied by the teacher or lecturer to be practiced by their students in front of the class. Mayer (1997) believed that multimedia-based presentation is the complete combination of verbal and visual formats along with the narrations and illustrations next to corresponding text. Recognizing that multimedia-based presentation was widely used in that era, Mayer and Moreno (1998) continued his exploration to examine the dual-processing theory of working memory since it was intertwined with how well the human can receive the information which is provided in various formats or modes. Mayer and Moreno (1998) clearly find that the human working memory has limited capacity as also discussed by Sweller (1988) in his cognitive load theory. Moreover, they also emphasize the idea

• f modes combination that works well in the human memory when two or

more formats are received simultaneously. It indicates that the information contained in multimedia-based presentation is genuinely received well in the students’ working memory if visual and verbal modes are combined or presented altogether. Thus, Mayer and Moreno (1998) agree that information transfer in the learning process that uses multimedia-based presentation is effectively conducted.

library.uns.ac.id digilib.uns.ac.id 28 Previously, the idea of information transfer in the learning process is also discussed by Meece, Blumenfeld, and Hoyle (1988). They believe that active learning process consists of several activities, they are integrating and organizing new information, constructing meaning, and monitoring comprehension to create the completed understanding. Recent research carried out by Rodicio (2014) is consistent in viewing multimedia learning as the active learning. She relates multimedia presentation with the strategies to promote the essential processing in learning, they are prompting, signaling, and questioning. However, the problems arise in the implementation of information transfer in learning process, such as the students who do not focus on the teacher or presenter, the material delivery which is not easy to understand, and so on. Therefore, they provide the exploration of the students’ behaviors along with their cognitive

• engagement. Those two main discussions were constructed due to the

urgency of exploring the students’ engagement and their behaviors to accomplish the successful information transfer. According to Mayer (2003), multimedia instructional message is aimed at fostering the meaningful learning. His view about the multimedia learning is somewhat undermining how the single-medium presentations

• works. The verbal explanation which used only the words to convey the

information is believed to be ineffective. This view is underlain by several evidences found by Mayer (1997; 1999, 2001) in which using single- medium presentation causes the students’ difficulties in understanding the

• materials. Most importantly, the idea of exploring multimedia presentation

cannot be separated from the promise of multimedia learning in promoting students’ understanding. The figure above draws the relationship of how multimedia learning is associated with the information transfer. In a broader framework, the figure indicates the role of information processing to the successful learning. It can be seen on the cognitive theory that is derived from the use of multimedia learning. Once multimedia learning is applied, the human

library.uns.ac.id digilib.uns.ac.id 29 cognition is automatically processing the input from various modes. It enables the students to explore the input and relate it to their prior

• knowledge. During this process, the conceptual theory and conceptual

theory take its role in guiding the students to keep on track. The level of engagement is possibly increased if the multimedia presentation is delivered

• appropriately. As a result, processing the input and being engaged during

the presentation will lead to the active learning.