Metallurgical Processes Chapter Thirty One: Welding Processes Dr. - - PowerPoint PPT Presentation

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Metallurgical Processes

Chapter Thirty One: Welding Processes

• Dr. Eng. Yazan Al-Zain

Department of Industrial Engineering

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Introduction

• Welding processes divide into two major categories:

– Fusion Welding: coalescence is accomplished by melting the two parts to be joined, in some cases adding filler metal to the joint. – Solid-State Welding: heat and/or pressure are used to achieve coalescence, but no melting of the base metals occurs and no filler metal is added.

• Fusion welding is the most important category. It includes:

– Arc Welding. – Resistance Welding. – Oxyfuel Gas Welding. – Other Fusion Welding Processes.

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Arc Welding

• Arc Welding (AW): a fusion-welding process in which coalescence
• f the metals is achieved by the heat of an electric arc between an

electrode and the work.

– Electric arc: discharge of electric current across a gap in a circuit. – Sustained by the presence of a thermally ionized column of gas (called a plasma) through which current flows. – To initiate the arc, the electrode is brought into contact with the work and then quickly separated from it by a short distance. – The electric energy from the arc formed produces temperatures of 5500 ºC or higher. – A pool of molten metal, consisting of base and filler metal (if one is used) is formed near the tip of the electrode, and solidifies as the electrode is moved along the joint.

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Arc Welding

• Arc Welding (AW).
• Fig. 31-1 The basic configuration and electrical circuit of an arc welding process.

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Arc Welding General Technology of AW

• Some technical issues related to AW processes should be
• addressed. These include: Electrodes, Arc Shielding and

Power Source in Arc Welding.

– Electrodes: classified as consumable or nonconsumable.

• Consumable Electrodes: provide the source of the filler metal in AW.
• Available in two principal forms: rods (also called sticks, 225 to 450

mm in length and 9.5 mm or less in diameter) and wire.

• The problem in weld rods is that they must be changed periodically,

reducing arc time of the welder.

• This problem is avoided using consumable weld wire as it can be

continuously fed.

• In both forms, the electrode is consumed by the arc during the

welding process and added to the weld joint as filler metal.

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Arc Welding General Technology of AW

– Electrodes: classified as consumable or nonconsumable.

• Nonconsumable Electrodes: made of tungsten (or carbon, rarely),

which resists melting by the arc.

• Despite its name, a nonconsumable electrode is gradually depleted

during the welding process (vaporization is the principal mechanism).

• Filler metal used in the operation must be supplied by means of a

separate wire that is fed into the weld pool.

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Arc Welding General Technology of AW

– Arc Shielding: the process of shielding the arc from the surrounding area to prevent chemical reactions, between the metals being joined and gases such as nitrogen, oxygen and hydrogen, that are accelerated at high temperatures.

• Done by covering the electrode tip, arc, and molten weld pool with a

blanket of gas and/or flux that inhibit exposure of the metal to air.

• Shielding gases: argon and helium, both of which are inert.
• Flux: a substance used to prevent the formation of oxides and other

unwanted contaminants, or to dissolve them and facilitate removal. During welding, the flux melts and becomes a liquid slag, covering the operation and protecting the molten weld metal.

• The slag hardens upon cooling and must be removed later.
• Flux additional functions: stabilize the arc, and reduce spattering.

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Arc Welding General Technology of AW

– Power Source in AW: both direct current (DC) and alternating current (AC) are used in AW. DC machines are more popular.

• In all AW processes, power to drive the operation is the product of

the current I passing through the arc and the voltage E across it.

• The power is converted into heat, but not all of the heat is

transferred to the surface of the work, due to losses that reduce the amount of usable heat (conduction, radiation, etc).

• Heat transfer efficiency is greater for AW processes that use

consumable electrodes because most of the heat consumed in melting the electrode is subsequently transferred to the work as molten metal.

• The process with the lowest heat transfer efficiency is gas tungsten

AW, which uses a nonconsumable electrode.

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– Power Source in AW: the resulting power balance in AW can be expressed as:

where RHW = power, J/s (W), E = voltage, V; I = current, A.

v A U IE f f R

w m w H

 

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Arc Welding General Technology of AW

Example 31.1

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AW Processes Consumable Electrodes

(1) Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW): uses a consumable electrode consisting of a filler metal rod coated with chemicals that provide flux and shielding.

• The filler metal used has a composition usually being very close to that of

the base metal.

• The coating consists of powdered cellulose (i.e., cotton and wood powders)

mixed with oxides, carbonates, and other ingredients, held together by a silicate binder.

• The heat of the welding process melts the coating to provide a protective

atmosphere and slag for the welding operation.

• During operation the bare metal end of the welding stick (opposite the

welding tip) is clamped in an electrode holder that is connected to the power source.

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AW Processes Consumable Electrodes

(1) Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW): uses a consumable electrode consisting of a filler metal rod coated with chemicals that provide flux and shielding.

• Currents typically used in SMAW range between 30 and 300 A at voltages

from 15 to 45 V.

• Common applications: construction, pipelines, etc.
• The equipment is portable, low cost and produce high power density,

making SMAW the most widely used of the AW processes.

• Base metals include iron alloys, and certain nonferrous alloys. It is not used
• r seldom used for aluminum and its alloys, copper alloys, and titanium.

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AW Processes Consumable Electrodes

(1) Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW).

• Fig. 31-2 Shielded metal arc welding (SMAW).

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AW Processes Consumable Electrodes

(2) Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW): the electrode is a consumable bare metal wire, and shielding is accomplished by flooding the arc with gas. The wire (0.8 to 6.5 mm in D) is fed directly from spool.

• Shielding gases include argon and helium (for welding Al and stainless

steel), and active gases such as carbon dioxide (for welding low and medium carbon steels).

• As the electrode is bare metal, no slag forms and thus cleaning and grinding
• f slag is not needed.
• Metal Inert Gas (MIG) Welding: applied to the welding of aluminum using

inert gas (argon) for arc shielding.

• CO2 Welding: gas used is CO2 instead of the expensive argon, specially for

steels.

• Advantages: no slag, no interruptions during welding (wire is used instead
• f stick), high deposition rates, etc.

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AW Processes Consumable Electrodes

(2) Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW).

• Fig. 31-3 Gas metal arc welding (GMAW).

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AW Processes Consumable Electrodes

(3) Flux-Cored Arc Welding (FCAW): the electrode is a continuous consumable flexible tubing (wire), contains flux and other ingredients (deoxidizers and alloying elements) in its core.

• Two versions of FCAW:

– Self-Shielded: arc shielding was provided by a flux core (thus the name self- shielded). – Ingredients generate shielding gases for protecting the arc. – Gas-Shielded: developed primarily for welding steels, obtains arc shielding from externally supplied gases, similar to gas metal arc welding.

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AW Processes Consumable Electrodes

(3) Flux-Cored Arc Welding (FCAW).

• Fig. 31-4 Flux-cored arc welding. The presence or absence of externally supplied

shielding gas distinguishes the two types: (1) self-shielded, in which the core provides the ingredients for shielding; and(2) gas-shielded, in which external shielding gases are supplied.

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AW Processes Consumable Electrodes

(4) Electrogas Welding (EGW): uses a continuous consumable electrode and molding shoes to contain the molten metal.

• Applied to vertical butt welding (it can also be used for fillet and groove

welds in a vertical orientation).

• Either a flux-cored electrode wire is employed, no external gases are

supplied, and the process can be considered a special application of self- shielded FCAW. Or, a bare electrode wire is used with shielding gases from an external source, it is considered a special case of GMAW.

• The molding shoes are water cooled to prevent their being added to the

weld pool.

• Together with the edges of the parts being welded, the shoes form a

container, almost like a mold cavity, into which the molten metal from the electrode and base parts is gradually added.

• Applications: steels in the construction of large storage tanks and in
• shipbuilding. Stock thicknesses from 12 to 75 mm are within the capacity of

EGW.

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AW Processes Consumable Electrodes

(4) Electrogas Welding (EGW).

• Fig. 31-5 Electrogas welding using flux-cored electrode wire: (a) front view with

molding shoe removed for clarity, and (b) side view showing molding shoes on both sides.

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AW Processes Nonconsumable Electrodes

(1) Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW): uses a nonconsumable tungsten electrode and an inert gas for arc shielding. The term TIG welding (tungsten inert gas welding) is often applied to this process

• When a filler metal is used (sometimes not used), it is added to the weld

pool from a separate rod or wire.

• Tungsten is a good electrode material (melting point = 3410 ºC). Shielding

gases include argon, helium, or a mixture.

• Applicable to all metals in a wide range of thicknesses. Also used for joining

dissimilar metals. Mostly used for Al and steels.

• Advantages include: high-quality welds, and little or no post weld cleaning

because no flux is used.

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AW Processes Nonconsumable Electrodes

(1) Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW).

• Fig. 31-6 Gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW).

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AW Processes Nonconsumable Electrodes

(2) Plasma Arc Welding (PAW): a special form of GTAW in which a narrow plasma arc is directed at the weld area.

• A tungsten electrode is contained in a specially designed nozzle that

focuses a high-velocity stream of inert gas into the region of the arc to form a high velocity, intensely hot plasma arc stream.

• Temperatures in plasma arc welding reach 17,000 ºC.
• Applications: automobile subassemblies, metal cabinets, door and window

frames, and home appliances.

• Advantages include: good arc stability, better penetration control than most
• ther AW processes, high travel speeds, and excellent weld quality.
• Limitations: equipment’s high cost and larger torch size.

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AW Processes Nonconsumable Electrodes

(2) Plasma Arc Welding (PAW).

• Fig. 31-7 Plasma arc welding (PAW).

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Resistance Welding

Resistance Welding (RW): a group of fusion-welding processes that uses a combination of heat and pressure to accomplish coalescence, the heat being generated by electrical resistance to current flow at the junction to be welded.

• The components in RW include workparts to be welded (usually sheet metal

parts), two opposing electrodes, a mean of applying pressure to squeeze the parts between the electrodes, and an AC power supply from which a controlled current can be applied.

• The operation results in a fused zone between the two parts, called a weld

nugget in spot welding.

• Uses no shielding gases, flux, or filler metal; and the electrodes that

conduct electrical power to the process are nonconsumable.

• Classified as fusion welding because the applied heat almost always

causes melting of the faying surfaces.

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Resistance Welding

• Fig. 31-8 Resistance welding (RW), showing the components in spot welding,

the predominant process in the RW group.

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Resistance Welding Power Sources in RW

• The heat energy supplied to the welding operation depends on current

flow, resistance of the circuit, and length of time the current is applied:

where H = heat generated, J; I = current, A; R = electrical resistance, Ω; and t = time, s.

• I used in resistance welding operations is very high (5000 to 20,000 A,

typically, for short periods (0.1 to 0.4 s)), and low E is relatively (below 10 V).

• The current in RW is very high because the resistance is very low (1x10-4Ω).
• Resistance in the welding circuit is the sum of (1) resistance of the electrodes,

(2) resistances of the workparts, (3) contact resistances between electrodes and workparts, and (4) contact resistance of the faying surfaces (should be largest). Thus, heat is generated in all of these regions of electrical resistance.

Rt I H

2



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Resistance Welding Power Sources in RW

• Example 31.2

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Resistance Welding Power Sources in RW

• Resistance of the electrodes is minimized by using metals

with very low resistance values, such as copper.

• Workpart resistance is a functions of the resistance values
• f the base metals and the part thicknesses.
• Contact resistances between the electrodes and the parts

are determined by the contact areas and the condition of the surfaces.

• Resistance at the faying surfaces depends on surface

finish, cleanliness, contact area, and pressure.

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Resistance Welding Power Sources in RW

• Success in resistance welding depends on pressure as well as heat.
• The principal functions of pressure in RW are to:

– Force contact between the electrodes and the workparts and between the two work surfaces prior to applying current. – Press the faying surfaces together to accomplish coalescence when the proper welding temperature has been reached.

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Resistance Welding Power Sources in RW

• Advantages of RW:

– No filler metal is required. – High production rates – Can be mechanized. – Operator skill level is lower than that required for arc welding – Good repeatability and reliability.

• Drawbacks of RW:

– Equipment cost is high. – Limited to lap joints for most RW processes.

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Resistance-Welding Processes

• Resistance welding can be classified into three major

types; Spot, Seam and Projection Welding.

– Resistance Spot Welding:

• By far the predominant process in this group.
• Widely used in mass production of automobiles, appliances, metal

furniture, and other products made of sheet metal.

• If one considers that a typical car body has approximately 10,000

individual spot welds, and that the annual production of automobiles throughout the world is measured in tens of millions of units, the economic importance of resistance spot welding can be appreciated.

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– Resistance Spot Welding: a RW process in which fusion of the faying surfaces of a lap joint is achieved at one location by

• pposing electrodes.
• Used to join sheet-metal parts of thickness 3 mm or less, using a

series of spot welds.

• Size and shape of the weld spot is determined by the electrode tip

(usually round).

• The resulting weld nugget is typically 5 to 10 mm in diameter, with a

HAZ extending slightly beyond the nugget into the base metals.

• If the weld is made properly, its strength will be comparable to that of

the surrounding metal.

Resistance-Welding Processes

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Resistance-Welding Processes

• Fig. 31-9 (a) Steps in a spot-

welding cycle, and (b) plot of squeezing force and current during cycle. The sequence is: (1) parts inserted between open electrodes, (2) electrodes close and force is applied, (3) weld time—current is switched on, (4) current is turned off but force is maintained or increased, and (5) electrodes are opened, and the welded assembly is removed.

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Resistance-Welding Processes

• Materials used for RSW electrodes consist of two main groups:

– Copper-based alloys. – Refractory metal compositions; e.g. copper and tungsten combinations: noted for superior wear resistance.

• The tooling in spot welding gradually wears out as it is used.
• Whenever practical, the electrodes are designed with internal

passageways for water cooling.

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Resistance-Welding Processes

• Various machines and methods are available to perform spot-welding
• perations. These include:

– Rocker-Arm Spot Welders: have a stationary lower electrode and a movable upper electrode that can be raised and lowered for loading and unloading the work. The upper electrode is mounted on a rocker arm whose movement is controlled by a foot pedal operated by the worker. – Portable Spot-Welding Guns: for large, heavy work it is difficult to move and position the part into stationary machines. Portable welders are the solution.

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Resistance-Welding Processes

– Rocker-Arm Spot Welder.

• Fig. 31-10 Rocker-arm spot-welding machine.

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Resistance-Welding Processes

– Resistance Seam Welding (RSEW): the stick-shaped electrodes in spot welding are replaced by rotating wheels.

• Fig. 31-10 Resistance seam welding (RSWE).

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Resistance-Welding Processes

– Resistance Seam Welding (RSEW): seams have different types.

• Fig. 31-11 Different types of seams produced by electrode wheels: (a)

conventional resistance seam welding, in which overlapping spots are produced; (b) roll spot welding; and (c) continuous resistance seam.

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Oxyfuel Gas Welding

• Oxyfuel Gas Welding (OFW): the term used to describe the group
• f FW operations that burn various fuels mixed with oxygen to

perform welding.

– The OFW processes employ several types of gases, which is the primary distinction among the members of this group. – Oxyfuel gas is also commonly used in cutting torches to cut and separate metal plates and other parts. – The most important OFW process is oxyacetylene welding.

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Oxyfuel Gas Welding Oxyacetylene Welding

• Oxyacetylene Welding (OAW): a fusion-welding process performed

by a high-temperature flame from combustion of acetylene and

• xygen.

– The flame is directed by a welding torch. – A filler metal is sometimes added, and pressure is occasionally applied in OAW between the contacting part surfaces. – Composition of the filler (often coated with a flux) must be similar to that

• f the base metals. Flux helps to clean the surfaces and prevent
• xidation.

– Acetylene (C2 H2 ) is the most popular fuel among the OFW group because it is capable of higher temperatures than any of the others—up to 3480 ºC.

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Oxyfuel Gas Welding Oxyacetylene Welding

• Oxyacetylene Welding (OAW)

– The flame in OAW is produced by the chemical reaction of acetylene and oxygen in two stages. The first stage is defined by the reaction:

• C2

H2 + O2 → 2CO + H2 + heat (Both products are combustible). – The second-stage of the reaction:

• 2CO + H2 +1.5O2 → 2CO2 + H2

O + heat – The first-stage reaction is seen as the inner cone of the flame (bright white where maximum temperature is reached), while the second-stage reaction is exhibited by the outer envelope (nearly colorless). – During welding, the outer envelope spreads out and covers the work surfaces being joined, thus shielding them from the surrounding atmosphere.

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Oxyfuel Gas Welding Oxyacetylene Welding

• Oxyacetylene Welding (OAW)
• Fig. 31-12 A typical
• xyacetylene welding
• peration (OAW).
• Fig. 31-13 The neutral flame

(acetylene and oxygen 1 : 1) from an oxyacetylene torch, indicating temperatures achieved.

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Oxyfuel Gas Welding Oxyacetylene Welding

• Oxyacetylene Welding (OAW): Example 31.3

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Solid-State Welding

• Coalescence of the part surfaces is achieved by (1) pressure alone,
• r (2) heat and pressure. In some processes, time is also a factor.
• If both heat and pressure are used, the amount of heat by itself is

not sufficient to cause melting of the work surfaces.

• In some cases, the combination of heat and pressure, or the

particular manner in which pressure alone is applied, generates sufficient energy to cause localized melting of the faying surfaces.

• Filler metal is not added in solid-state welding.

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Solid-State Welding General Considerations

• A metallurgical bond is created with little or no melting of the base

metals.

• To metallurgically bond two metals, they must be brought into

intimate contact so that their atomic forces attract each other.

• In order for atomic bonding to succeed, chemical films, gases, oil,
• etc. must be removed.
• Since no or limited melting, there is no HAZ.
• Also, some of these processes are quite applicable to bonding

dissimilar metals, without concerns about relative thermal expansions, conductivities, and other problems that usually arise when dissimilar metals are melted and then solidified during joining.

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Solid-State Welding Solid-State Welding Processes

• Solid-state welding processes include the following:

– Forge Welding. – Cold Welding. – Roll Welding. – Hot Pressure Welding. – Diffusion Welding. – Explosion Welding. – Friction Welding.

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Solid-State Welding Solid-State Welding Processes

• Forge Welding: is a welding process in which the components to be

joined are heated to hot working temperatures and then forged together by hammer or other means.

– Considerable skill was required by the craftsmen who practiced it in

• rder to achieve a good weld by present-day standards.

– The process may be of historic interest; however, it is of minor commercial importance today except for in some cases.

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Solid-State Welding Solid-State Welding Processes

• Cold Welding (CW): done by applying high pressure between clean

contacting surfaces at room temperature.

– Surfaces must be very clean for CW to work, and cleaning is (done by degreasing) immediately before joining. – One of the metals to be welded, must be very ductile. – Metals such as soft aluminum and copper can be readily cold welded. – The applied compression forces result in cold working of the metal parts, reducing thickness by as much as 50%; but they also cause localized plastic deformation at the contacting surfaces, resulting in coalescence. – Applications of CW include making electrical connections.

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Solid-State Welding Solid-State Welding Processes

• Roll Welding (ROW): a variation of either forge welding or cold
• welding. It is a solid-state welding process in which pressure

sufficient to cause coalescence is applied by means of rolls, either with or without external application of heat.

– If no external heat is supplied, the process is called cold-roll welding; if heat is supplied, the term hot-roll welding is used. – Application; e.g. cladding stainless steel to mild low alloy steel for corrosion resistance

• Fig. 31-15 Roll Welding (ROW.)

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Solid-State Welding Solid-State Welding Processes

• Diffusion Welding (DFW): welding process that results from the

application of heat and pressure, usually in a controlled atmosphere, with sufficient time allowed for diffusion and coalescence to occur.

– Temperature is equal to or less than 0.5 Tm . – Involves migration of atoms across the interface between contacting surfaces, with the plastic deformation being as low as possible. – The time for diffusion to occur could be as long as 1 hr. – Applications: joining of high-strength and refractory metals in the aerospace and nuclear industry.

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Solid-State Welding Solid-State Welding Processes

• Explosion Welding (EXW): a solid-state welding process in which

rapid coalescence of two metallic surfaces is caused by the energy

• f a detonated explosive.

– Commonly used to bond two dissimilar metals, in particular to clad one metal on top of a base metal over large areas. – No filler metal is used, and no external heat is applied. Also, no diffusion

• ccurs during the process (the time is too short).

– Applications include production of corrosion-resistant sheet and plate stock for making processing equipment in the chemical and petroleum industries.

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Solid-State Welding Solid-State Welding Processes

• 1. When detonation is initiated, the explosive charge propagates from one end of the flyer

plate to the other.

• 2. Explosion occurs in a progressive fashion, very rapid though (8500 m/s).
• 3. The resulting high-pressure zone forces the flyer plate to collide with the backer metal

at high velocity.

• 4. The high-speed collision causes the surfaces at the point of contact to become fluid,

providing intimate contact and leading to metallurgical bonding after solidification.

• 5. The result is a very strong bond over a large are (Mechanical Interlocking).
• Fig. 31-16 Explosive welding (EXW): (1) setup in the parallel configuration, and (2)

during detonation of the explosive charge.

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Solid-State Welding Solid-State Welding Processes

• Friction Welding (FRW): a solid-state welding process in which

coalescence is achieved by frictional heat combined with pressure.

– Friction is induced by mechanical rubbing between the two surfaces. – The parts are then driven toward each other with sufficient force to form a metallurgical bond. – When properly carried out, no melting occurs at the faying surfaces. No filler metal, flux, or shielding gases are normally used. – It is a mass production process that is applied in the welding of various shafts and tubular parts in industries such as automotive, aircraft, farm equipment, petroleum, and natural gas.

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Solid-State Welding Solid-State Welding Processes

• Friction Welding (FRW).
• Fig. 31-17 Friction welding (FRW): (1) rotating part, no contact; (2) parts

brought into contact to generate friction heat; (3) rotation stopped and axial pressure applied; and (4) weld created.

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Weld Quality

• The purpose of any welding process is to join two or more

components into a single structure.

• The physical integrity of the structure thus formed depends on the

quality of the weld.

• The Arc Welding (AW) process is the one for which the quality issue

is the most critical and complex.

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Weld Quality Residual Stresses and Distortion

• The sudden temperature changes in localized regions of the work

during fusion welding result in thermal expansion and contraction that cause residual stresses in the weldment.

• These stresses can cause distortion and warping of the welded

assembly.

• The situation in welding is complicated because:

– Heating is very localized. – Melting of the base metals occurs in these local regions. – Location of heating and melting is in motion.

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Weld Quality Residual Stresses and Distortion

• Fig. 31-18 (a) Butt welding two plates; (b) shrinkage across the width of the

welded assembly; (c) transverse and longitudinal residual stress pattern; and (d) likely warping in the welded assembly.

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Weld Quality Residual Stresses and Distortion

• As welding proceeds, a molten pool is formed from the base metal that

quickly solidifies behind the moving arc.

• The portions of the work immediately adjacent to the weld bead become

extremely hot and expand, while portions removed from the weld remain relatively cool.

• The weld pool quickly solidifies, and as it and the surrounding metal cool

and contract, shrinkage occurs across the width of the weldment.

• The weld seam is left in residual tension, and reactionary compressive

stresses are set up in regions of the parts away from the weld.

• Residual stresses and shrinkage also occur along the length of the weld

bead.

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Weld Quality Residual Stresses and Distortion

• Since the outer regions of the base parts have remained relatively cool and

dimensionally unchanged, while the weld bead has solidified from very high temperatures and then contracted, residual tensile stresses remain longitudinally in the weld bead.

• The net result of these residual stresses, transversely and longitudinally, is

likely to cause warping in the welded assembly.

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Weld Quality Residual Stresses and Distortion

• To minimize distortion in a weldment:

– Welding Fixtures: physically restrain movement of parts during welding. – Heat Sinks: rapidly remove heat from sections of welded parts. – Tack Welding at multiple points along the joint: can create a rigid structure prior to continuous seam welding. – Welding Conditions (speed, amount of filler) selected to reduce warping. – Preheating base parts: to reduce level of thermal stresses experienced by parts. – Stress Relief heat treatment can be performed on the welded assembly. – Proper Design of the weldment itself can reduce the degree of warping.

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Weld Quality Welding Defects

• Defects other than residual stresses and distortion can appear

in welding:

– Cracks: fracture-type interruptions either in the weld itself or in the base metal adjacent to the weld.

• Most serious welding defect because it constitutes a discontinuity in

the metal that significantly reduces weld strength.

• Caused by embrittlement or low ductility of the weld and/or base

metal combined with high restraint during contraction.

• Generally, this defect must be repaired.

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Weld Quality Welding Defects

– Cracks.

• Fig. 31-19 Various forms of welding cracks.

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Weld Quality Welding Defects

– Cavities: include various porosity and shrinkage voids.

• Porosity: consists of small voids in the weld metal formed by gases

entrapped during solidification. Porosity usually results from inclusion of atmospheric gases, sulfur in the weld metal, or contaminants on the surfaces.

• Shrinkage Voids: cavities formed by shrinkage during solidification.

Both of these cavity-type defects are similar to defects found in casting.

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Weld Quality Welding Defects

– Solid Inclusions: nonmetallic solid materials trapped inside the weld metal. The most common form is slag inclusions generated during AW processes that use flux.

• Instead of floating to the top of the weld pool, globules of slag

become encased during solidification of the metal.

• Another inclusion form is metallic oxides that form during the

welding of metals such as aluminum, which normally has a surface coating of Al2 O3 .

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Weld Quality Welding Defects

– Incomplete Fusion: a weld bead in which fusion has not

• ccurred throughout the entire cross section of the joint.
• Lack of Penetration: a related defect, which means that fusion has

not penetrated deeply enough into the root of the joint.

– Imperfect Shape or Unacceptable Contour: weld should have a certain desired profile for maximum strength for a single V- groove weld.

• This profile maximizes the strength of the welded joint and avoids

incomplete fusion and lack of penetration.

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Weld Quality Welding Defects

• Fig. 31-20 Several forms of incomplete fusion.

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Weld Quality Welding Defects

• Fig. 31-21 (a) Desired weld profile for single V-groove weld joint. Same joint but

with several weld defects: (b) undercut, in which a portion of the base metal part is melted away; (c) underfill, a depression in the weld below the level of the adjacent base metal surface; and (d) overlap, in which the weld metal spills beyond the joint onto the surface of the base part but no fusion occurs.

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Weld Quality Inspection and Testing Methods

• Visual Inspection: most widely used inspection method. An

inspector visually examines the weldment for:

– Conformance to dimensional specifications on the part drawing. – Warping. – Cracks, Cavities, Incomplete Fusion, and other visible defects.

• Limitation: only surface defects are detectable; internal defects cannot be

discovered by visual methods.

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Weld Quality Inspection and Testing Methods

• Nondestructive Testing (NDT): various methods that do not

damage the specimen being inspected.

– Dye-Penetrant Test: liquid sprayed on the weldment. It penetrates into the crack, if present, and a red color appears. (Note: defects should be

• pen to the surface).

– Fluorescent-Penetrant Test: similar to dye-penetrant, but highly visible when exposed to ultraviolet light. – Ultrasonic Testing: involves the use of high-frequency sound waves (>20 kHz) directed through the specimen. Discontinuities (e.g., cracks, inclusions, porosity) are detected by losses in sound transmission. – Radiographic Testing: uses X-rays or gamma radiation to detect internal defects. It provides a photographic film record of any defects.

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Weld Quality Inspection and Testing Methods

• Destructive Testing: methods in which the weld is destroyed either

during the test or to prepare the test specimen. They include mechanical and metallurgical tests.

– Mechanical Tests: similar in purpose to conventional testing methods such as tensile tests and shear tests. The difference is that the test specimen is a weld joint. – Metallurgical Tests: involve the preparation of metallurgical specimens

• f the weldment to examine such features as metallic structure, defects,

extent and condition of HAZ, presence of other elements, etc.

70

Weld Quality Inspection and Testing Methods

• Mechanical Tests.
• Fig. 31-22 Mechanical tests used in welding: (a) tension–shear test of arc

weldment, (b) fillet break test, (c) tension–shear test of spot weld, (d) peel test for spot weld.

71

Weldability

• Weldability: the capacity of a metal or combination of metals to be

welded into a suitably designed structure, and for the resulting weld joint(s) to possess the required metallurgical properties to perform satisfactorily in the intended service.

• Good weldability is characterized by:

– The ease with which the welding process is accomplished. – Absence of weld defects, and acceptable strength. – Ductility, and toughness in the welded joint.

72

Weldability

• Factors affecting weldability:

– Welding Process: some metals or metal combinations that can be readily welded by one process are difficult to weld by others; e.g. stainless steel can be readily welded by most AW processes, but is considered a difficult metal for oxyfuel welding. – Base Metal Properties: such as melting point, thermal conductivity, and coefficient of thermal expansion.

• Too low melting point: means that such metals melt too easily for good

welding; e.g. aluminum.

• Too high thermal conductivities: such metals tend to transfer heat away from

the weld zone, which can make them hard to weld (e.g., copper).

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Weldability

• Factors affecting weldability:

– Filler Metal: must be compatible with the base metal(s). – Surface Conditions: adversely affect the operation; e.g. moisture can result in porosity in the fusion zone. Oxides and other solid films on the metal surfaces can prevent adequate contact and fusion from occurring.

74

Design Considerations in Welding

• In welding, certain guidelines should be followed:

– Design for Welding: the most basic guideline is that the product should be designed from the start as a welded assembly, and not as a casting

• r forging or other formed shape.

– Minimum Parts: welded assemblies should consist of the fewest number of parts possible. For example, it is usually more cost efficient to perform simple bending operations on a part than to weld an assembly from flat plates and sheets.

75

Design Considerations in Welding

• The following design guidelines apply to AW:

– Good fit-up of parts to be welded is important to maintain dimensional control and minimize distortion. Machining is sometimes required to achieve satisfactory fit-up. – Accessibility: the assembly must provide access room to allow the welding gun to reach the welding area. – Whenever possible, design of the assembly should allow flat welding to be performed, since this is the fastest and most convenient welding

• position. (See figure next slide).

76

Design Considerations in Welding

• Fig. 31-23 Welding positions (defined here for groove welds): (a) flat, (b) horizontal,

(c) vertical, and (d) overhead.

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Design Considerations in Welding

• The following design guidelines apply to RSW:

– Low-carbon sheet steel up to 3.2 mm is the ideal metal for resistance spot welding. – The spot-welded assembly must provide access for the electrodes to reach the welding area. – Sufficient overlap of the sheet-metal parts is required for the electrode tip to make proper contact in spot welding; e.g. for low-carbon sheet steel, the overlap distance should range from about six times stock thickness for thick sheets of 3.2 mm to about 20 times thickness for thin sheets, such as 0.5 mm.