Theories and Models of Language Change Innovation Recombination - - PowerPoint PPT Presentation

Roland Mühlenbernd Introduction

Motivation

Linguistic Variation

Innovation Recombination Randomness

Linguistic Selection

Social VS Functional Factors Selection and Drift The Problem of Linkage

Homeworks

Theories and Models of Language Change

Session 3: Evolutionary Approaches - Variation and Selection Roland Mühlenbernd May 5, 2015

Roland Mühlenbernd Introduction

Motivation

Linguistic Variation

Innovation Recombination Randomness

Linguistic Selection

Social VS Functional Factors Selection and Drift The Problem of Linkage

Homeworks

Motivation: Universal Darwinism

◮ Universal Darwinism stands for general evolutionary

mechanisms: variation, selection and self-replication

◮ biological and cultural (also linguistic) evolution, both are

manifestations of these mechanisms

Roland Mühlenbernd Introduction

Motivation

Linguistic Variation

Innovation Recombination Randomness

Linguistic Selection

Social VS Functional Factors Selection and Drift The Problem of Linkage

Homeworks

Motivation: Universal Darwinism

Dennett’s conditions for evolution:

• 1. variation: continuing abundance of different elements
• 2. replication: elements have capacity to create copies
• 3. selection (differential “fitness”): number of copies of

element depending on interaction between element features and environmental features

Roland Mühlenbernd Introduction

Motivation

Linguistic Variation

Innovation Recombination Randomness

Linguistic Selection

Social VS Functional Factors Selection and Drift The Problem of Linkage

Homeworks

Variation and Change

◮ Labov and Herzog (1968) distinguish between the

emergence of a new variant from their spread through the speech community

◮ Both processes essentially mirror variation and selection:

new variants come into use, and selectional pressures lead to their replication

◮ But how does variation come about? How does linguistic

innovation arise?

Roland Mühlenbernd Introduction

Motivation

Linguistic Variation

Innovation Recombination Randomness

Linguistic Selection

Social VS Functional Factors Selection and Drift The Problem of Linkage

Homeworks

Innovation and Actuation

◮ Linguistic research has primarily addressed the

spread/propagation of change rather than its innovation

◮ Notable exception: Milroy & Milroy 1985; Milroy 1992

address the process of actuation in terms of social-network analysis1

◮ New variants may emerge for various reasons, but they

• nly turn into a change once they come to bear on the

linguistic system

◮ Actuation is the minimal step an innovation needs to

become a change

◮ Croft (2000) distinguishes between creation (innovation/

actuation) and diffusion (propagation) of a new form

◮ Note: it’s only the successful innovation that we register

1Note that innovation and actuation are two separate processes.

Roland Mühlenbernd Introduction

Motivation

Linguistic Variation

Innovation Recombination Randomness

Linguistic Selection

Social VS Functional Factors Selection and Drift The Problem of Linkage

Homeworks

Emergence of New Variants

Three ways new linguistic variants can arise (Lass 1997)

• 1. borrowing from other languages
• 2. genuine invention/creation out of nothing
• 3. transformation of already existing material

◮ exaptation: re-use of old material for different purpose Example from Traugott 2004: Exaptation and Grammaticalization ◮ analogical extension: generalization of form/construction

to a new context (e.g. regularization of irregular forms like English Plural ‘-s’ generalizes from OE masculine Plural ‘-as’ of strong nouns; metaphorical change)

◮ reanalysis2: creation of a new form/construction or rule on

the syntagmatic level (e.g. English modals: from full to auxiliary verbs with specific properties: (i) no inflection, (ii) defective (no infinitive/passive), (iii) do-support)

2Reanalysis differs from analogy: the latter is just an extension to a new

form/context, the former leads to the creation of a new form/construction

Roland Mühlenbernd Introduction

Motivation

Linguistic Variation

Innovation Recombination Randomness

Linguistic Selection

Social VS Functional Factors Selection and Drift The Problem of Linkage

Homeworks

Recombination of Linguistic Elements

Croft (2000) distinguishes various ways of reanalysis (of form/function relationships):

• 1. hyperanalysis: reduction of function (e.g. semantic

bleaching (‘have got (to)’)

• 2. hypoanalysis: enlargement of function/exaptation

(e.g. German Umlaut emerged from phonetic adaption in Plural forms, and became a Plural marker)

• 3. metaanalysis: shift of function (e.g. German new pre-

positions as case/gender markers ’in dem/das → im/ins’)

• 4. cryptoanalysis: enlargement of form (e.g. pleonasm

(semantic enlargement): “most unkindest”; “poodle dogs”; “klammheimlich”; double coding: “Maurers” (German, coll. masons), “you can’t tip no fireman.” )

Roland Mühlenbernd Introduction

Motivation

Linguistic Variation

Innovation Recombination Randomness

Linguistic Selection

Social VS Functional Factors Selection and Drift The Problem of Linkage

Homeworks

Random or Functional Innovation?

• 1. Claim: variation arises randomly, and only the process of

selection brings ‘order’ into language change (McMahon 1994)

• 2. Claim: innovation in language is amenable to functional

motivation (Croft 2000) This controversy...

◮ is often a question of theoretical interpretation: e.g.

Blevin’s CCC-model of sound change states that sources

• f innovation in sound change are phonetically motivated

◮ and therefore functionally motivated according to Croft

(2000)

◮ whereas Blevin considers them as random3

3Randomness might be interpreted in different ways: e.g. form partially

constrained/motivated transition steps a random process?

Roland Mühlenbernd Introduction

Motivation

Linguistic Variation

Innovation Recombination Randomness

Linguistic Selection

Social VS Functional Factors Selection and Drift The Problem of Linkage

Homeworks

Exercise I

What are the mechanisms for the emergence of new variants according to Blevin’s CCC-model?4 Assign each mechanism to its description?

◮ Change: misinterpretation of the phonetic signal due to

perceptual similarity Example: 2nb@"liv@b@l → 2mb@"liv@b@l

◮ Chance: phonetic signal is accurately received, but

different association due to phonological ambiguity Example: bit → bIt

◮ Choice: receiver associates a phonological form with the

set of variants which differs from the phonological form in the speaker’s grammar, therefore makes a different selection due to various representation Example: dA:ns → dæns

4According to Blevin (2004): Evolutionary Phonology.

Roland Mühlenbernd Introduction

Motivation

Linguistic Variation

Innovation Recombination Randomness

Linguistic Selection

Social VS Functional Factors Selection and Drift The Problem of Linkage

Homeworks

Linguistic Selection: Choose a Variant d A:

æ

• ns

you can’t tip a

no

• fireman.

I ’ve got to

gotta

• go.

They offer the best cattle

beef

• in town.

My daddy taught

teached

• me all I know.

Wir gehen zu dem

zum

• Strand.

Roland Mühlenbernd Introduction

Motivation

Linguistic Variation

Innovation Recombination Randomness

Linguistic Selection

Social VS Functional Factors Selection and Drift The Problem of Linkage

Homeworks

Linguistic Selection

Two pathways of linguistic selection:

• 1. One variant ousts the other: e.g. ‘village’ substitutes

‘thorp’

• 2. The variants persist over time and become specialized

(functionally and/or socially)

◮ e.g. semantic function: ‘pork/pig’ refer to ‘meat/animal’ ◮ e.g. speaker groups:5 pal, buddy [Am.], dude [Am.], bro

[Am.], mate [Br.], cobber [Aus./NZ], cully [archaic]

5classification according to dict.cc for finding a translation for German Kumpel.

Roland Mühlenbernd Introduction

Motivation

Linguistic Variation

Innovation Recombination Randomness

Linguistic Selection

Social VS Functional Factors Selection and Drift The Problem of Linkage

Homeworks

Exercise II

What is "differential replication"?

◮ Selection according to structural patterns of linguistic

variants

◮ Selection according to social factors of linguistic variants ◮ Selection according to the distribution of linguistic

variants √ Differential replication: Selection does not lead to a specific variant, but to a stable distribution (or eqilibrium) of variants.

Roland Mühlenbernd Introduction

Motivation

Linguistic Variation

Innovation Recombination Randomness

Linguistic Selection

Social VS Functional Factors Selection and Drift The Problem of Linkage

Homeworks

Exercise III

What are - according to Croft (2000) - main determinants of linguistic choices?

◮ context ◮ social status ◮ prestige √ ◮ accommodation √

Note: Croft argues that the selection process

◮ is only driven by social factors ◮ has an outcome that must be functionally adaptive

Roland Mühlenbernd Introduction

Motivation

Linguistic Variation

Innovation Recombination Randomness

Linguistic Selection

Social VS Functional Factors Selection and Drift The Problem of Linkage

Homeworks

Subsequent Functional Adaptation

Note: prepositional dative marker is an optional marker,

◮ used as a compensatory strategy for missing case

distinction (Bavaria)

◮ determined by information structure (Northern

Switzerland)

◮ used to avoid stress clashes, thus driven by phonological

factors (Central Switzerland) Ergo: i) functional differentiation cannot be part of innovation, but of a subsequent (selection/adaptation) process OR ii) the same variant is produced simultaneously.

Roland Mühlenbernd Introduction

Motivation

Linguistic Variation

Innovation Recombination Randomness

Linguistic Selection

Social VS Functional Factors Selection and Drift The Problem of Linkage

Homeworks

Exercise IV

Allocate the following descriptions to the ‘initiation’ and ‘realization’ processes of evolutionary ‘selection’/‘drift’. Evolitionary Selection Evolutionary Drift I emergence of an inno- vation at one particular point in time R propagation of a newly invented variant

Roland Mühlenbernd Introduction

Motivation

Linguistic Variation

Innovation Recombination Randomness

Linguistic Selection

Social VS Functional Factors Selection and Drift The Problem of Linkage

Homeworks

Exercise IV

Allocate the following descriptions to the ‘initiation’ and ‘realization’ processes of evolutionary ‘selection’/‘drift’. Evolitionary Selection Evolutionary Drift I emergence of an inno- vation at one particular point in time emergence of an innovation at multiple times, indep., and due to same functional pressure R propagation of a newly invented variant cumulative effect of many indi- vidual speaker actions

Roland Mühlenbernd Introduction

Motivation

Linguistic Variation

Innovation Recombination Randomness

Linguistic Selection

Social VS Functional Factors Selection and Drift The Problem of Linkage

Homeworks

Exercise V

What is - according to the author - the main problematic nature

• f distinguishing between ‘functional’ and ‘social’ factors

guiding selection processes in language change?

◮ There are factors that are neither ‘functional’ nor ‘social’,

but rather of ‘psychological’ nature.

◮ Language change is only driven by social factors, whereas

a ‘functional fit’ is only the result of social optimization processes.

◮ The label ‘functional’ or ‘social’ simply reflects a

terminological choice in most cases, and depends heavily

• n the theoretical framework. √

Roland Mühlenbernd Introduction

Motivation

Linguistic Variation

Innovation Recombination Randomness

Linguistic Selection

Social VS Functional Factors Selection and Drift The Problem of Linkage

Homeworks

The Problem of Linkage

Selection operates on language use, so how does it make its way into grammar?

• bserved constraints on variation

?ր? ⇓ ?տ? corresponding pattern of functional preferences (selection) Note: this problem is related to the question of (the locus of) replication.

Roland Mühlenbernd Introduction

Motivation

Linguistic Variation

Innovation Recombination Randomness

Linguistic Selection

Social VS Functional Factors Selection and Drift The Problem of Linkage

Homeworks

Homeworks

◮ Read the article ‘Language change as cultural evolution:

Evolutionary approaches to language change’(Rosenbach, 2008), Sections 4.3 - 6 (pages 48 - 63)

◮ solve the appropriate exercises given on ILIAS